Clinical Implications for Speech-Language Pathologists Regarding Working Memory & Developmental-Language Disorders

https://www.pacificu.edu/blog/what-speech-language-pathology-complete-guide-benefits

Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) has a prevalence of 7% at school entry and is characterized by persistent language difficulty with significant impact on daily activities that is not associated with a biomedical condition (Larson et al, 2023; Archibald, 2018). Difficulties are often seen in language expression such as morphosyntax, vocabulary and grammar; language processing, and verbal working memory tasks. In addition to language difficulties, children with DLD present with lower performance on working memory (WM), inhibition, attention, and processing speed even in nonverbal tasks compared to peers (Larson et al, 2023). There is an abundance of research that encourage SLPs to support intervention of WM in order to support academic success (Senter et al., 2022).

WM is a mental system that temporarily holds and actively manipulates and processes information to perform tasks such as problem solving (McLeod, 2025). WM goes beyond passive and simple storage, which is called short-term memory. WM is important because it allows individuals to follow directions, solve problems, and learn new skills that are key to reading, writing, math, and academics in general. 

The Working Memory Model by Baddeley & Hitch was first developed to explain behavioural findings related to memory while also counted for neuropsychological reports (Buchsbaum, 2016). The model explains that working memory has (1) a limited capacity system, (2) specialized subsystems, (3) distinct storage areas compared to sensory perception. 

Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)

This model describes working memory with multiple components (Buchsbaum, 2016; McLeod, 2025):

• Central executive: Control system that coordinates how you use your working memory. Decides on what to focus on, organizes tasks, directs information to the right place in your mind, deals with mental arithmetic and problem-solving.

• Visuospatial sketchpad: Temporarily holds visual images (colour, shape, appearance) and spatial relationships (positions, directions, movements) which is critical for navigation. 

• Episodic buffer: Brings information together from multiple sources (visual details, sounds, emotions, memories) and links this information to your long-term memory.

• Phonological loop: Stores and maintains verbal information for a short period allowing language processing such as learning new vocabulary and following spoken instructions. This loop consists of the inner ear which passively holds speech-based information for a couple of seconds and the inner voice which actively repeats the words or sounds to stop them from fading. Any written input needs to be translated into ‘inner voice’ which is critical for reading. 

Lobes of the Brain https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-anatomy/lobes-brain

WM has been demonstrated to principally be under control in the temporal and frontal lobes; however verbal memory cannot be localized to a single brain region (Buchsbaum, 2016). For children with DLD, weaknesses in brain networks may affect multiple language processes at once, therefore presenting as a multi-component impairment rather than a single deficit. 

There are considerably more marked deficits reported on verbal WM compared to visuospatial in children with DLD (Archibald, 2018). Verbal WM includes verbal sequences, associations between words and meaning (semantics), and patterns in sequential input. 

WM and language processing are highly interdependent. First, WM supports language processing through word learning and sentence-level processing (Archibald, 2018). For word learning, WM helps individuals immediately repeat nonsense words through the phonological loop and facilitates establishing lexical representations in the long-term memory through the episodic buffer. This process is key in early vocabulary association. For sentence-level processing, WM recalls increasing numbers of semantically-full words and detects late-occurring grammatical errors. 

Second, language processing supports WM. Children with limited vocabulary and morphosyntactic processing face higher WM loads to retain this information (Archibald, 2018). The episodic buffer, which retrieves from long-term memory for relevant associations and context will be more effortful. This is especially true when the quality of representations are low, numerous, or when the task requires more steps. Efficient and accurate language processing allows ‘chunking’ of information to reduce the load on working memory.

Overall, it’s important for SLPs to consider the relationship between WM and language when supporting children with DLD. SLPs must consider how cognitive load influences performance during assessment and intervention since language tasks heavily rely on WM. Additionally, weak language knowledge can increase WM demands, creating a cycle of overload and fatigue. Effective intervention should focus on reducing the cognitive load; improving phonological memory, automaticity, and metacognition; and explicit teaching of strategy use (Boudreau & Costanza-Smith, 2011).

References

Archibald, L. M. D. (2018). The reciprocal influences of working memory and linguistic knowledge on language performance: Considerations for the assessment of Children with Developmental Language Disorder. Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 49(3), 424–433. https://doi.org/10.1044/2018_lshss-17-0094

Boudreau, D., & Costanza-Smith, A. (2011). Assessment and Treatment of Working Memory Deficits in School-Age Children: The Role of the Speech-Language Pathologist. Language, Speech & Hearing Services in Schools, 42(2), 152–166. https://web-s-ebscohost-com.proxy1.lib.uwo.ca/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=0&sid=6042988f-2152-4c44-9798-285dbbe3f07e%40redis

Buchsbaum, B. R. (2016). Working Memory and Language. In Neurobiology of Language (pp. 863–875). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-407794-2.00069-9 

Larson, C., Mathée-Scott, J., Kaplan, D., & Weismer, S. E. (2023). Cognitive processes associated with working memory in children with developmental language disorder. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 234, 105709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105709

McLeod, S., PhD. (2025). Working Memory Model. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/working-memory.html 

Senter, R., Chow, J. C., & Willis, E. C. (2022). Speech-Language Pathology Interventions for Children with Executive Function Deficits: A Systematic Literature review. Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 54(1), 336–354. https://doi.org/10.1044/2022_lshss-22-00013